The same trend was observed for total P; as a result, cow dung had narrower C:N and C:P ratios than waste paper. The C:N ratio of cow dung and paper waste is found to be very narrow and very wide, respectively, because such ratio is necessary so that resident or inoculated microflora can multiply by producing extracellular hydrolytic enzyme.
Most of the time, final C:N ratio of compost depends upon initial C:N ratio of the substrate. Interestingly, C:N ratio of bacterial cell is also approximately Cow manure had high EC and ash content compared to waste paper. The higher EC values in cow dung could be due to the release of salts from the manure with the passage of time. The pH of both material used for the experiment was alkaline; however, higher pH was recorded in waste paper.
Table 2 shows the summary of the interaction amongst treatments and time during decomposition of the mixtures. Results indicated that there was pronounced substantial interaction between treatments and time. In all treatments, percent ash increased with time, even though, there were variations in the magnitude among the different treatments Fig.
Absolute control yielded the lowest values, while the highest values were observed where phosphoric acid PHA was added. Generally, the water-soluble P sources resulted in higher percent ash values than the RP, CaCl 2 and control treatments. Gupta et al. At days 14 and 28, except for PHA-treated waste, reduction in VS values of CaCl 2 -treated mixtures was not markedly different from the control; whereas, TSP- and RP-treated vermicomposts follow same pattern with a sudden drop between days 42 and 56, respectively.
Reduction in volatile solids content during vermicomposting of the waste mixtures could be as a result of the disintegration process by microbial activity and loss of carbon in the form of CO 2 Khwairakpam and Bhargava ; Singh and Kalamdhad b.
Utilization of carbon by microorganism as a primary energy source for their growth during the vermicomposting process might also cause the reduction of volatile solids Khwairakpam and Bhargava ; Levanon and Pluda Singh and Kalamdhad a revealed that OM decreased with the amount of cattle manure inclusion when water hyacinth was subjected to composting.
Nevertheless, decrease of organic matter in this study was not subjected to the quantity of waste mixtures but may be because of the presence of easily available food for earthworms. At the beginning of the experiment, vermicomposts pH values ranged between 5. However, this effect varied with time as shown by the significant interaction between applied treatments and time Table 2.
The trends in which pH increased during vermicomposting corroborated the work of Tripathi and Bhardwaj and Loh et al. However, this present study contradicted the works of Haimi and Huhta ; Ndegwa et al. Electrical Conductivity which varied from 4. Two treatments, RP and control shadowed self-same patterns, with abrupt drop between days 42 and 56 Fig.
Electrical conductivity as reported by different scientists either increased or decreased during vermicomposting process, some workers reported decrease in electrical conductivity Garg et al. The decrease has been attributed to a decrease in ions after forming a complex whereas the increase has been attributed to the degradation of organic matter to release cations and release of different mineral salts in available forms such as phosphate, ammonium, and potassium.
The C:N ratio declined meaningfully with time, respectively, at supplementary P-nutrient source; however, there were obvious differences between different P-source treatments up to 28 days, beyond which differences were minimal except for CaCl 2 -treated waste mixtures that spread wider apart Fig. More decrease in C:N ratio was witnessed past day 28 till the end of the trial but the outcomes of enhanced P-nutrient sources were not meaningfully altered apart from CaCl 2 -treated vermicompost.
Final C:N ratios were in the range of 10—12 in vermicompost treated with P-nutrient source fertilizer, whereas control and CaCl 2 -treated vermicompost had C:N ratios of 14 and 22, respectively Fig. Thus, the addition of P-nutrient bearing source aided reduction of vermicompost C:N ratio and in turn enhanced cow dung—waste paper mixtures vermidegradation at the early stages of vermicomposting up to day 28, beyond which treatment effect was minimal.
However, vermicompost treated with CaCl 2 declined minimally but not lower than 22 at day 56 Fig. Bernal et al. A linear increase in ammonium was observed from day zero to day 28 and sharply declined thereafter till termination of the experiment at day 56 Fig.
Nitrate—nitrite in the vermicompost followed the same linearly increasing pattern up to day 14 with higher increment observed where TSP was included, while the lowest nitrate—N substance were recorded with compost treated with CaCl 2 till 28 days Fig.
A sharp increment was noticed from day 28 till day 42 in all the treatments except from mixtures blended with CaCl 2. Although Bernal et al. Another reason behind this augmentation could be the closeness and activity of worms in the substrate and discharge of chemicals as reported by Mupondi et al.
Addition of treatments into waste mixtures had significant effect on the amount of P discharge. In case of RP and Control, they followed similar pattern from the beginning till 56th day, while CaCl 2 -treated vermicompost remained the lowest up to termination of the experiment Table 3. But Parvaresh et al. According to Bhattacharya and Chattopadhyay , phosphate bacteria enable the dissolution of P from P-bearing minerals through the production of phosphatase enzymes.
Humification parameters [polymerization index PI , HI, and HR] of waste mixtures were affected by all treatments during vermicomposting period. These effects were similar to the trend observed in C:N ratio as shown in Table 1. At the beginning of vermicomposting up to 14 days, all treated waste materials had the same PI of 0. However, as vermicomposting progressed 28 days , changes in PI were noticed. Similarly, humification indexes HI from day zero to day 14 of vermicomposting were not different when compared with the control Fig.
The added P-nutrient sources followed the same trend for humification ratio HR in vermicompost from the beginning to the end of the study period Fig. Roletto et al. None of the extracts from the final vermicomposted products treated with P or Ca sources had any constrain on seed sprouting of test crops Table 4. Tomato had the main important value of This can be because of well advance of decay of natural substrates and diminishment of phytotoxic mixes coming about because of vermicompost maturing.
All extracts used for seed germination test were freed of phytotoxicity except were CaCl 2 extract was used because of high EC in regard of Ca-treated product and resilience of tested seeds to salinity Tiquia Our results correspond to Paradelo et al.
Bustamante et al. Of the three P sources tested, water-soluble P vermicomposts had the highest germination indices for all crops tested indicating the superiority of these vermicomposts. Figure 6 c—f confirmed the degree of humification of the resultant vermicompost from SEM results.
At the beginning of the experiment, the waste mixture had a compressed group both of roughage and protein fibres morphologically Fig. However, where earthworms and TSP, RP, PHA were added, highly degraded, fine grain texture vermicompost was produced from the grinding nature exhibited by the earthworm Fig. The level of grinding activities of the waste materials by earthworms became more intensified with treatments. Vermicompost produced from TSP readily available P enrichment had well-humified and high aggregate particles which was evident in the humification parameters, showing the importance of P rather than Ca CaCl 2 during bioconversion of waste.
Additional affirmation of intense mixtures decomposition is also revealed from SEM pictures Fig. The resultant SEM photo of the vermicompost exhibited a specific physical appearance that portrayed a scattered separated minute in nature contrast to the control. Thus, SEM images in this study were similar to that of Lim et al.
The wider contrasts in the degree of decomposition observed from various treatments at 14th and 28th days agreed with the time of most extreme microbial action Unuofin et al. Scanning electron microscope pictures showing P and Ca source effects on vermicompost morphological properties. The results of this study have demonstrated that phosphorous and not calcium is responsible for the enhanced biodegradation of waste mixtures mixed with P bearing like rock phosphate during vermicomposting.
However, the use of water-soluble P sources to enhance vermicomposting may not be justifiable where impure and less expensive P sources such as rock phosphates are available as their use can result in equally mature and P-enriched vermicomposts in 6—8 weeks. However, it could also be partially linked to meeting the P nutritional requirements of the earthworms. This latter effect will need to be explored in future studies. CAB International, Wallingford. Google Scholar.
Compt Sci Utility — Article Google Scholar. Bioresour Technol — Bhattacharya S, Chattopadhyay GN Increasing bioavailability of phosphorus from fly ash through vermicomposting. J Environ Qual. Biswas DR, Narayanasamy G Rock phosphate enriched compost, an approach to improve low-grade Indian rock phosphate.
Low outside temperature slow down the process, while warmer conditions speed up the process. Mesophillic bacteria function between 50 andf degrees F to begin the composting process. Thermophillic bacteria take over and thrive between to degrees F. These high temperatures are what destroy weed seeds and pathogens in the compost. Some composting manures can reach temperatures of degrees F. However, temperatures above degrees F may char the compost or create conditions suitable for spontaneous combustion.
Mature or stable compost is similar to humus in appearance, smell, and touch. The finished compost will no longer heat on its own, thus maintaining the ambient temperature, and there will be no weed seeds or pathogens.
The pH will be near 7. The C:N ratio will be to The organic matter content will be between 40 and 65 percent. It is important to protect the compost from windblown weed seeds until its point of use. It is very important not to apply unfinished or immature compost, it may have phytotoxins that can kill plants. An inexpensive way to test for mature compost is the watercress test. Watercress seeds will not germinate or grow in immature compost because they are very sensitive to pH and nutrition.
Compost has many uses on the farm. It can be used as a soil amendment to improve soil structure, infiltration rate, water holding capacity, and tilth. It will increase soil microorganism populations, soil organic matter and humus. Compost can also be used as a fertilizer supplement for nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, and trace elements. Mature compost has no objectionable odor, never "burns" as fertilizers do, can be used to suppress insect pests and soilborne plant pathogens, and act as a fungicide.
A major California fruit and vegetable grower was able to cut pesticide use by 80 percent after three years of compost applications as part of an organic matter management system. Compost can be used to increase pasture quality in intensively managed grazing systems. Compost does not decrease palatability of a pasture as raw manure does. This can be very important to farmers who no longer produce row crops where raw manure was generally applied.
Convenience is also an advantage of compost, because it is a stable product it can be stored and applied when it fits the farmers schedule and the field does not have to be taken out of production. Compost can also be used as a mulch for trees, orchards, landscapes, lawns, gardens, and makes an excellent potting mix. Additional uses for compost include vegetable production, field crops, annual forest plantings, sod farms, greenhouse crops, mined lands, roads city, county, state , and recreation areas golf courses, trails, athletic fields, and parks.
To be commercially viable, supplies of raw materials must be reliable and potential markets for mature compost use must be developed. Application rates will vary depending on crop nutrient needs, field history, and local climate. Applying pounds of compost per 1, square feet, at a depth of 6 inches will increase soil organic matter by 0. For row crops recommendations range between 3 and 10 tons per acre, while pastures recommendations go up to 4 tons per acre.
Some berry and squash crops recommendations are between 25 and 75 tons per acre. While compost is a slow release of nutrients, reports vary in its ability to meet the nutrient needs of crops. You should have your compost analyzed for its nutrient content and adjust your application rates accordingly. Your county extension agent can help you with this. The market for compost is one of increasing demand. Supermarkets, restaurants, and schools produce 16 million tons of commercial organic waste that may be composted.
Source separated food scrap compost is generally higher in nutrient value and lower in contamination than most other types of compost, thus making it more valuable in the market. The potential market size of compost in agricultural applications is by far the largest, with silvicultural applications as the second largest. One of the benefits of food waste composting is the financial savings from landfill tipping fees and the potential financial gain from the sale of the finished product.
As landfill space and openings decrease, there will undoubtedly be more pressure to compost food waste along iwth all organic waste. As tipping fees increase and it becomes prohibitively more expensive to landfill, composting may be an attractive financial alternative as well as a value-added opportunity. Laws already exist in many states that require counties to compost. Oregon and Washington are developing laws that will require all businesses to compost all of their organic waste including food waste.
As agricultural practices continue to exhaust soils and deplete organic matter, compost will be integral in maintaining soil fertility. Landscape, nursery, public agency and homeowner demand for high quality compost continues to increase. Compost is an essential product in increasing amounts of land reclamation projects. Compost also plays an important role in more environmentally regulated and environmentally aware agricultural systems.
For many livestock, poultry, and sustainable and alternative agriculture operations, compost and composting may be the best choice as well as opportunity for added income. Barker, J. Formulating an Organic Compost Recipe. Water Quality and Waste Management.
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. North Carolina State University. Dougherty, M. Field Guide to On-Farm Composting. Natural Resource, Agriculture, and Engineering Service.
Contact: McLaurin, Wayne J. University of Georgia Cooperative Extension Circular University of Georgia. Sherman, R. Environmental Protection Agency. Summary of Compost Markets. If the particles are too small, however, they might prevent air from flowing freely through the pile. Microorganisms living in a compost pile need enough moisture to survive. Water is the key element that helps transports substances within the compost pile and makes the nutrients in organic material accessible to the microbes.
Organic material contains some moisture in varying amounts, but moisture also might come in the form of rainfall or intentional watering. Turning the pile, placing the pile on a series of pipes, or including bulking agents such as wood chips and shredded newspaper all help aerate the pile. Aerating the pile allows decomposition to occur at a faster rate than anaerobic conditions. Care must be taken, however, not to provide too much oxygen, which can dry out the pile and impede the composting process.
Microorganisms require a certain temperature range for optimal activity. Certain temperatures promote rapid composting and destroy pathogens and weed seeds. If the temperature does not increase, anaerobic conditions i.
Controlling the previous four factors can bring about the proper temperature. Organizations that are going to compost small amounts of wasted food can compost onsite. Composting can significantly reduce the amount of wasted food that is thrown away. Yard trimmings and small quantities of food scraps can be composted onsite. Animal products and large quantities of food scraps are not appropriate for onsite composting. Red worms in bins feed on food scraps, yard trimmings, and other organic matter to create compost.
The worms break down this material into high quality compost called castings. Worm bins are easy to construct and are also available for purchase. One pound of mature worms approximately , worms can eat up to half a pound of organic material per day.
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